The Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya has not acceded to the Mine Ban Treaty. Libya does not appear to be any closer to joining the treaty despite some positive indicators in 2004 and 2005 of a new willingness to consider accession. The President of the National Program for Mine Clearance and Land Reclamation stated in a letter to Protection, an Egyptian NGO, that if Libya joined the treaty it would be obliged to clear all of its territory, which would require too much money and human resources and would negatively affect development in Libya.[1]
Libya has said on several occasions in the past that it supports a prohibition on antipersonnel mines, and encourages countries that can join the Mine Ban Treaty to do so, but that it is not possible yet for Libya because of security concerns, as well as the financial and technical difficulties related to mine clearance.[2]
However, Libyan officials continued to repeat long-stated objections to joining the treaty. In June 2005, Libya’s UN Ambassador told States Parties that it could not accede because it does not commit states that laid mines in other countries “to remove their landmines, compensate for the damages, or provide the necessary technical and financial assistance.” He also said the treaty, “does not take into consideration the security concerns of developing nations like the Great Jamahiriya, which has a vast geographical area, and yet does not have alternative means to tackle the security failure caused by the absence of anti-personnel landmines.”[3]
Libya was among 17 countries that in December 2005 abstained from voting on UN General Assembly Resolution 60/80, which promoted universalization and full implementation of the Mine Ban Treaty. It has abstained from voting on similar resolutions every year since 1998.
Libya registered a five-person observer delegation for the Sixth Meeting of States Parties in Zagreb, Croatia in November-December 2005, but apparently did not attend. Libya did not participate in the meetings of the intersessional Standing Committees in May 2006, but did attend the meetings in June 2005.
The Tripoli Seminar on Removing Landmines, held on 12 May 2005, was the first landmine event sponsored by the government and the first held in Libya.[4] At the seminar, Saif al Islam Muammar al Gaddafi (President of the Gaddafi International Foundation for Charity Associations, and the son of Libya’s President) called for the country to accede to the Mine Ban Treaty.[5] The ICBL sent a representative to Tripoli in August 2005 to participate in events related to the anniversary of the Gaddafi Foundation.
Libya is not party to the Convention on Conventional Weapons.
In March 2004, a Libyan official stated for the first time that the country has never produced or exported antipersonnel mines, and that it no longer has a stockpile of antipersonnel mines.[6] Libya is known to have imported mines from the former Soviet Union, including POMZ-2 and POMZ-2M antipersonnel fragmentation mines.[7] In addition, Chad reported that in August 2003, it discovered 207 PMA-3 blast mines (ex-Yugoslav origin) in a container abandoned by the Libyan army.[8]
According to Saif al Islam Muammar al Gaddafi, Libya laid two million mines in the northeast of the country and along the border with Egypt during its conflict with Egypt in 1977; it also laid an unknown number in the area of Tipisti in the south and in the north of Chad during its war with Chad in 1980-1987.[9]
Libya has a problem with landmines and explosive remnants of war (ERW)[10] as a result of the World War II campaign in North Africa, as well as wars with Egypt in 1977 and Chad in 1980-1987.[11] The borders with Chad, Egypt and Tunisia are affected by mines and unexploded ordnance (UXO) as are areas in the north and in the south of the country.[12]
The exact extent of the contamination in Libya is not known, as no survey has ever been conducted. Estimates vary greatly, reaching as high as 10 million mines.[13] In 2004, however, an official from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs told Landmine Monitor that there were between 1.5 and 3 million landmines in the ground.[14] Most of the minefields are not marked.[15]
According to Libyan officials, there are no maps of mines emplaced along the border with Chad, but maps exist for those laid along the border with Egypt.[16] Italy handed over to Libya maps showing the locations of World War II minefields. In June 2005, Libya reiterated its call for other countries to hand over maps of minefields on Libyan territory.[17]
Mine/UXO contamination is reported to have had a negative impact on development, petroleum and industrial projects and on livestock grazing. The costs to construct a 3,380-kilometer network of pipes, which sought to deliver water from underground in the south of the country to the northern coastal area, were massively increased due to the need for clearance.[18]
The Ministry of Defense and the Civil Protection Unit, located within the Ministry of Interior and Justice, each have responsibilities for various aspects of mine action. The Ministry of Defense is reported to clear areas serving either a military or civilian development purpose. The Civil Protection Unit has carried out clearance in affected communities.[19]
In April 2005, the General People’s Committee established a National Program for Demining and Land Reclamation “in order to work with concerned parties for the purpose of demining and reclamation of affected lands, leading to their integration in the general development plan.”[20] The National Program is headed by the Minister of International Cooperation and comprises all ministries.[21] However, Libya has claimed that in order to be successful, it needs to be provided with maps of all minefields laid in the country, as well as the necessary means and equipments to conduct mine clearance and assist mine survivors. In this regard, “a special fund has been established to collect financial support.”[22]
At the Tripoli Seminar on Removing Landmines on 12 May 2005, the President of the Gaddafi International Foundation for Charity Associations explained that the Army Engineering Corps has the experience necessary to clear World War II landmines and ERW since they cleared hundreds of thousands of World War II era mines and ERW during the 1970s and 1980s. He noted that the technical characteristics and large number of mines (more than two million) along the Egyptian border would make clearance of the border area difficult.[23] The President added that Libya and Egypt discussed joint border clearance but that Egypt was not eager to undertake joint clearance and Libya was reluctant to undertake clearance operations unilaterally.[24]
However, at the same seminar, the President announced the launch of a “national campaign” to remove the landmines planted along the borders with Egypt and Chad.[25] The campaign is reported to have started in late June 2005 in Tobrouk as a joint project of the Gaddafi International Foundation for Charity Associations and retired military personnel.[26] In May 2006, it was reported that the demining campaign had not started.[27]
The Anti-Mines Association, a national NGO, was formed in early 2005. It is a member of the Gaddafi International Foundation for Charity Associations. The Anti-Mines Association has not commenced mine clearance operations.[28]
From World War II to 1981 Libya reported the clearance of 14.5 million landmines and ERW.[29] According to a military official, some mine clearance is carried out every year by the Civil Protection Unit and the Engineering Corps of the Army, but the results of this demining are not made public.[30]
No external funding for mine clearance in Libya has been reported, as in previous years.[31]
Landmine Monitor identified no new mine/UXO casualties in Libya in 2005 and January-May 2006. According to a Libyan government official, there are new incidents every month, but there is no mechanism in place to collect data.[32] However, the Anti-Mines Association stated that the Security Services and the Secretariat for Health and Social Solidarity collect casualty data; this data was not made available to Landmine Monitor.[33]
The total number of landmine casualties in Libya is not known. Reports compiled by the Libyan police indicate that 11,845 landmine casualties were recorded between 1940 and 1995, including 6,749 people killed and 5,096 injured.[34] The Libyan Jihad Center for Historical Studies reports higher statistics: 12,258 mine casualties, including 3,874 people killed and 8,384 injured, between 1952 and 1975.[35]
Libya offers medical care in public hospitals free of charge to all its citizens. The Secretariat for Health and Social Solidarity is responsible for providing specialist healthcare to landmine casualties.[36]
The country’s two major hospitals are located in Tripoli and Benghazi. Both hospitals are affiliated with specialized schools and institutes for the training of medical staff.[37] Smaller towns and villages have health clinics and remote areas are serviced by mobile clinics.[38] Only 30 percent of the 102 hospitals are located in rural areas and 10 percent of hospitals are not functioning.[39] However, public hospitals suffer from a lack of equipment and quality care. Private clinics are not affordable for all.[40] The Libyan Red Crescent Society provides health services through its health centers in Tripoli, Benghazi and Misurata, and has small clinics in 48 cities in Libya.[41]
There are no international NGOs working on disability issues in Libya and very few specialized services are available for people with disabilities.[42] In spite of this, disabled people, including mine/UXO survivors, receive medical care and rehabilitation in specialized hospitals, access to social support facilities and assistance in accessing employment opportunities.[43]
According to the League of Disabled, 3,081 amputees are recorded, representing five percent of all recorded people with disabilities. However, only 61,667 people are registered out of the estimated 160,000-200,000 people with disabilities.[44]
The Social Solidarity Fund is responsible for providing rehabilitation and comprehensive services for people with disabilities, through 32 branch committees. There are three referral centers for adults with physical disabilities, five referral centers for children with physical disabilities, and 21 ‘day-time’ units.[45] However, physical rehabilitation services and psychosocial assistance in Libya are reportedly insufficient to meet the needs of mine/UXO survivors.[46] Rehabilitation workers employed by the government do not receive salaries to cover their cost of living. Poor awareness of disabilities, low incomes, difficult accessibility and the lack of home care and a social safety network hamper the reintegration of people with disabilities, especially economically.[47]
The Benghazi Rehabilitation Center, run by the Social Solidarity Fund, is one of the two main referral centers for rehabilitation in Libya. It operates a hospital, an orthopedic workshop, physical rehabilitation center, psychosocial support and vocational training services for people with disabilities. Renovation of the center started in 2000 following an agreement between Libya, Italy and the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and was reportedly completed in 2005. The renovation aimed to provide better services to people disabled by mines from World War II. Italy provided approximately $7 million, which was used to train 36 technicians and equip the 120-bed rehabilitation hospital at the center.[48] In 2005-2006, the center’s organizational development and start-up was supported by the Italian Directorate for Development Cooperation. It will have a Libyan and an Italian coordinator, and 168 medical and 26 social staff. The center can assist 25-30 patients per day, but was working at 85 percent of its capacity. The lack of qualified nurses, data management, training gaps and erratic material supplies were a challenge for the center.[49]
The International Committee of the Red Cross Special Fund for the Disabled (SFD) and the Libyan Red Crescent planned to support a physical rehabilitation center in 2005. However, the government reportedly assumed responsibility for this.[50]
The Anti-Mines Association included victim assistance in its organizational objectives, but due to a lack of funds, logistic and technical support activities had not started by June 2006.[51]
In 2006, UN Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) sent a questionnaire on the provision of victim assistance, including immediate and longer-term rehabilitation, to six North African states including Libya.[52]
The 1980 Law on Social Insurance provides a comprehensive social security system for all citizens and foreigners living in the country, including people with disabilities. Entitlements include pensions, medical treatment and surgery, hospitalization, medicine, orthopedic equipment, dental care, glasses and rehabilitation.[53] Law No. 5 of 1987 also relates to persons with disabilities but no information is available on the benefits available under the legislation.[54]
[1] Letter from Dr. Taher Siala, Chairman, National Program for Demining and Land Reclamation, Ministry of Foreign Liaison and International Cooperation, to Protection, 22 August 2005.
[2] See for example, statement by Libya, Amman Seminar on Military and Humanitarian Issues Surrounding the Ottawa Convention, Amman, 20 April 2004; interview with Almabrouk Mohamed Milad, Director of International Organizations, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Geneva, 12 February 2004.
[3] Statement by Amb. Najat M. Al-Hajjaji, Libyan Permanent Representative to the UN in Geneva, Standing Committee on the General Status and Operation of the Convention, Geneva, 17 June 2005.
[4] See Landmine Monitor Report 2005, pp. 814-815.
[5] Statement by Saif al Islam Muammar al Gaddafi, President of Gaddafi International Foundation for Charity Associations, Tripoli Seminar on Removing Landmines, Tripoli, 12 May 2005 (notes taken by Landmine Monitor researcher).
[6] Interview with Col. Ali Alahrash, Ministry of Defense, Geneva, 16 March 2004.
[7] Jane’s Mines and Mine Clearance, Third Edition 1998-99, Jane’s Information Group, p. 603.
[8] Chad Article 7 Report, Form G, 27 May 2004; email to Landmine Monitor from Michel Destemberg, Senior Technical Advisor, UNOPS/HCND, 5 July 2004.
[9] Statement by Saif al Islam Muammar al Gaddafi, Tripoli Seminar on Removing Landmines, 12 May 2005.
[10] Under Protocol V to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, explosive remnants of war are defined as unexploded ordnance and abandoned explosive ordnance. Mines are explicitly excluded from the definition.
[11] Sylvie Brigot, ICBL Advocacy Director, “Report on the May 2005 Tripoli Seminar on Removing Landmines,” 18 May 2005, www.icbl.org.
[12] Those areas include: Barida, Capuzo, Giarabub, Kufra, Tobrouk, Gazala, El-Adem, Bir-el-Gobi, Timmi, Mechili in the east and north-east of the country; Cyrene, Barce, Barce, Soluk, Msus, Benghazi, Tolmmetta, Zuetina, Agdabia, Brega, Agheila, Ras-Lanuf, Nufilia, Sirte, Hon, Buerat, Ghaddahia, Minsurata, Zltine, Sebha, Homs, Tarhuna, Gheriat, Beni-ulid, Mizda, Bu-Ngem, Tripoli, Zawia, Zuara in the north; Ghadams on the Libyan-Tunisian border; Murzuk and Tibisti in the south. “The White Book,” Libyan Studies Center, 1980, p. 1; “Death Fields,” Department for Civil Protection, Ministry of Justice and Security, 2002; see Landmine Monitor Report 2004, p. 1065.
[13] See Landmine Monitor Report 2004, p. 1065; Ahmed Besharah, “World War II mines planted in Libya and its socio-economic impact,” Libyan Jihad Center for Historical Studies, 1995, p. 123.
[14] Interview with Alambrouk Mohamed Milad, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 15 May 2003. For details of the types of antipersonnel mines remaining from World War II, see Landmine Monitor Report 2004, pp. 1065-1066.
[15] Interview with Col. Ali Alahrash, Ministry of Defense, 16 March 2004.
[16] Sylvie Brigot, ICBL Advocacy Director, “Report on the May 2005 Tripoli Seminar on Removing Landmines,” 18 May 2005.
[17] Statement by Libya, Standing Committee on General Status and Operation of the Convention, Geneva, 17 June 2005.
[18] Statement by Nasser El-Mabruk, Minister of Interior, First Review Conference, Nairobi, 3 December 2004; see Landmine Monitor Report 2004, p. 1065.
[19] Interview with Dr. Taher Siala, Assistance Secretary, Ministry of Foreign Liaison and International Cooperation, Chairman of the National Program for Demining and Land Reclamation, Tripoli Seminar on Removing Landmines, Tripoli, 12 May 2005.
[20] Statement by Libya, Standing Committee on the General Status and Operation of the Convention, Geneva, 17 June 2005.
[21] Interview with Dr. Taher Siala, Tripoli Seminar on Removing Landmines, Tripoli, 12 May 2005.
[22] Statement by Amb. Najat M. Al-Hajjaji, Standing Committee on the General Status and Operation of the Convention, Geneva, 17 June 2005.
[23] Statement by Saif al Islam Muammar al Gaddafi, Tripoli Seminar on Mine Clearance, Tripoli, 12 May 2005.
[24] Sylvie Brigot, ICBL Advocacy Director, “Report on the May 2005 Tripoli Seminar on Removing Landmines,” 18 May 2005.
[25] Statement by Amb. Najat M. Al-Hajjaji, Standing Committee on the General Status and Operation of the Convention, Geneva, 17 June 2005.
[26] Telephone interview with Hakim Amri and Mashalah Gafoul, Directors, Anti-Mines Association, 25 June and 3 July 2005.
[27] Telephone interview with members of the Anti-Mines Association, 28 May 2006.
[28] Landmine Monitor meeting with Anti-Mines Association board members, Tripoli, 11 May 2005.
[29] Ahmed Besharah, “World War II mines planted in Libya and its socio-economic impact,” Libyan Jihad Center for Historical Studies, 1995, p. 123.
[30] See Landmine Monitor Report 2004, p. 1066; interview with Dr. Taher Siala, Tripoli Seminar on Removing Landmines, 12 May 2005.
[31] See Landmine Monitor Report 2005, p. 817.
[32] Interview with Dr. Taher Siala, Tripoli Seminar on Removing Landmines, Tripoli, 12 May 2005.
[33] Response to Landmine Monitor VA Questionnaire by Najm al-Din Abu al-Rawi, Director, Anti-Mines Association, Tripoli, 7 June 2006.
[34] See Landmine Monitor Report 2000, p. 953.
[35] See Landmine Monitor Report 2005, p. 817.
[36] Response to Landmine Monitor VA Questionnaire by Najm al-Din Abu al-Rawi, Anti-Mines Association, Tripoli, 7 June 2006.
[37] “Looking at Health Care,” Cultural Profiles Project, www.cp-pc.ca, accessed 6 October 2005.
[38] Paola Russo, “Welfare in the Mediterranean Countries, Great Arab Popular Socialist Libyan Jamahyria,” Center for Administrative Innovation in the Euro-Mediterranean Region, undated (but relating to events in 2004), p. 13.
[39] Libyan-Italian Cooperation, “Support to the organizational development of Benghazi Rehabilitation Centre General Plan of Action 2005-2006,” p. 7, sent to Landmine Monitor (HI) by Nohad Chebaro, League of Disabled, Benghazi, 27 June 2006.
[40] Email to Landmine Monitor (HI) from Karine Maeckelberghe, Consul, Embassy of Belgium, Tripoli, 16 May 2006.
[41] International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, “Profile: Libyan Red Crescent,” www.ifrc.org, accessed 21 May 2006.
[42] Email from Karine Maeckelberghe, Embassy of Belgium, Tripoli, 16 May 2006.
[43] See Landmine Monitor Report 2005, p. 818.
[44] Libyan-Italian Cooperation, “Support to the organizational development of Benghazi Rehabilitation Centre General Plan of Action 2005-2006,” p. 8.
[45] Ibid, p. 96.
[46] Response from Dr. Taher Siala to Landmine Monitor question at the Tripoli Seminar on Removing Landmines, Tripoli, 12 May 2005.
[47] Libyan-Italian Cooperation, “Support to the organizational development of Benghazi Rehabilitation Centre General Plan of Action 2005-2006,” pp. 9, 17.
[48] UNDP, “Libya,” www.undp-libya.org, accessed 21 May 2006.
[49] Libyan-Italian Cooperation, “Support to the organizational development of Benghazi Rehabilitation Centre General Plan of Action 2005-2006,” pp. 1-27.
[50] Landmine Monitor (HI) interview with Theo Verhoeff, Director, SFD, Geneva, 11 May 2006.
[51] Response to Landmine Monitor VA Questionnaire from Najm al-Din Abu al-Rawi, Anti-Mines Association, Tripoli, 7 June 2006.
[52] Email to Landmine Monitor (HI) from Rosy Cave, UNIDIR, Geneva, 4 May 2006.
[53] Law No. 13 of 1980 on Social Security, www.ilo.org, accessed 5 August 2005.
[54] Law No. 5 of 1987 on Disabled Persons, www.ilo.org, accessed 23 August 2005.